Sexual Strategies theory proposes that females have evolved distinct strategies to solve different problems they may encounter when pursuing a short-term or long-term relationship ( Buss and Schmitt, 1993). This preference for masculinity in men as short-term partners has been found with a range of stimuli and modalities, including face, body, voice, and odor ( Little et al., 2011a). In addition, this relationship context effect was more pronounced in women with partners and not found in those taking hormonal contraception pills ( Little et al., 2002). Using computer graphics techniques to manipulate masculinity in male facial shape, women show a stronger preference for facial masculinity when choosing short-term partners compared to long-term partners ( Little et al., 2002 Penton-Voak et al., 2003 Jones et al., 2018). One factor that has been found to have a consistent effect on women’s preference for male masculinity is relationship context. Alternatively, individual differences in self-rated attractiveness, relationship status, own-health condition, exposure to violence, pathogen disgust sensitivity and resource availability might contribute to the variation in results ( Holzleitner and Perrett, 2017). (2006) found that different methods can produce similar results. Variability in methods has been proposed to account for the differences in results ( Rhodes, 2006), yet by directly comparing commonly used methods to measure women’s preferences for male facial masculinity, DeBruine et al. Some studies found that masculine faces were preferred by women (e.g., Rhodes et al., 2003 DeBruine et al., 2006 Feinberg et al., 2008 Little et al., 2008 Saxton et al., 2009 Jones et al., 2018), whereas other studies have reported a preference for femininity in men (e.g., Perrett et al., 1998 Penton-Voak et al., 1999 Little et al., 2002 Scott et al., 2010), and yet other studies report no overall preference for sexual dimorphism (e.g., Swaddle and Reierson, 2002 Cornwell et al., 2004). Research on women’s preference for male facial masculinity over the past two decades is marked by inconsistent findings. The findings indicate that body composition needs to be taken into consideration in psychological studies involving body weight. These findings suggest that the facial correlates of body fat and muscle have distinct impacts on the perception of male masculinity and on women’s preferences. No difference was found in women’s preference for the face shape correlates of fat mass between the two relationship contexts. The results were consistent across the two participant groups: women preferred the appearance of male faces associated with a higher muscle mass for short-term compared with long-term relationships. In Study 2, we asked two groups of women to optimize male face images (by adjusting the shape correlates of fat and muscle) to most resemble someone they would prefer, either for a short-term sexual relationship or for a long-term relationship. The face shape correlates of muscle mass profoundly enhanced perceived masculinity but the face shape correlates of fat mass only affected the perception of masculinity in underweight to low normal weight men. In Study 1, participants rated masculinity of shape-transformed male faces. We digitally transformed face shape simulating the effects of raised and lowered levels of body fat or muscle, controlling for each other, height and age. We therefore conducted a second study of heterosexual women’s preferences for facial correlates of fat and muscle mass under long and short relationship contexts. Women have been found to prefer more masculine looking men when considering short-term relationships compared with long-term relationships. We therefore investigated the influence of facial correlates of body composition (fat mass and muscle mass) on the perception of masculinity in male faces. BMI conflates body fat and muscle which are sexually dimorphic because men typically have more muscle but less fat than women. 2Institute of Neuroscience & Psychology, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdomīody mass index (BMI) and its facial correlates influence a range of perceptions including masculinity and attractiveness.1School of Psychology & Neuroscience, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, United Kingdom.
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